| Non-Rationalised History NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 6th to 12th) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Chapter 1 TRACING CHANGES THROUGH A THOUSAND YEARS
New and Old Terminologies
Understanding historical records requires sensitivity to the evolving context, language, and meanings of words over time. The science of cartography also changed, impacting how geographical information was presented.
Meaning of Hindustan
The term "Hindustan" has evolved significantly in its meaning. In the 13th century, it referred to the territories of Punjab, Haryana, and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna, primarily in a political sense related to the Delhi Sultanate's dominion. By the early 16th century, Babur used it to describe the subcontinent's geography, fauna, and culture, similar to how Amir Khusrau used "Hind" in the 14th century. Today, it signifies modern India, a nation-state, a meaning not associated with the term in the past.
Meaning of Foreigner
The perception of a "foreigner" has also changed. In the medieval period, any stranger unfamiliar with the local society or culture in a particular village was considered a foreigner. This could include a forest-dweller in the eyes of a city-dweller. However, two peasants from the same village, despite potential differences in religion or caste, were not foreigners to each other.
Historians and Their Sources
Historians utilize various sources to study the past, depending on the historical period and the nature of their inquiry. For the period between 700 and 1750, historians rely on coins, inscriptions, architecture, and textual records, similar to earlier periods.
Types of Sources
During the period from 700 to 1750, there was a dramatic increase in the number and variety of textual records. Paper became more affordable and widely available, leading to its use for writing holy texts, chronicles of rulers, letters, teachings of saints, petitions, judicial records, and account registers. These manuscripts were collected by wealthy individuals, rulers, monasteries, and temples and were stored in libraries and archives.
Challenges with Manuscripts
Manuscripts, while providing detailed information, are challenging to use because they were copied by hand by scribes. This manual copying process often introduced small but significant differences, such as changes in words or sentences, over centuries. As original manuscripts are rarely found, historians must compare different manuscript versions of the same text to ascertain the author's original intent. Authors also sometimes revised their chronicles, leading to variations between different versions, as seen with Ziyauddin Barani's work.
New Social and Political Groups
The thousand years between 700 and 1750 were marked by significant social, political, and cultural changes, partly due to the introduction of new technologies, foods, and beverages.
Technological and Social Changes
New technologies like the Persian wheel in irrigation, the spinning wheel in weaving, and firearms in warfare emerged during this period. New food items such as potatoes, corn, chillies, tea, and coffee were introduced to the subcontinent, often brought by people who also introduced new ideas and ways of life.
Rise of New Groups and Jatis
This era also witnessed significant population movement in search of opportunities. Groups like the Rajputs (meaning "son of a ruler"), who between the 8th and 14th centuries generally included warriors claiming Kshatriya status, became important. Other groups like the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms, and Kayasthas also gained political prominence. The gradual clearing of forests and expansion of agriculture forced many forest-dwellers to migrate or become peasants. These new peasant groups became integrated into larger, complex societies, paying taxes and providing services to local lords. This led to the formation of jatis (sub-castes) based on background and occupation, which framed their own rules and regulations enforced by bodies like the jati panchayat.
Region and Empire
The period saw the rise of large, pan-regional empires that encompassed diverse geographical areas and populations.
Pan-Regional Empires
Empires such as those of the Cholas, Khaljis, Tughluqs, and Mughals were able to establish rule over multiple regions. Claims of vast empires, stretching from Bengal to Afghanistan and including South India, were made by rulers like Ghiyasuddin Balban. While historians view these claims as often exaggerated, they also seek to understand the rulers' motivations for asserting control over various parts of the subcontinent.
Regional States and Legacies
By 700 CE, many regions had developed distinct geographical identities, languages, and cultural characteristics, often associated with specific ruling dynasties. The decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century led to the resurgence of regional states. However, years of imperial rule had left a lasting impact on the character of these regions, influencing governance, economic management, elite culture, and language. These regions experienced the effects of larger, integrating forces while retaining their distinctiveness.
Old and New Religions
Significant developments occurred in religious traditions during this period, with changes in beliefs and practices often intertwined with social and economic structures.
Developments in Hinduism
Important changes took place in what is now understood as Hinduism. This included the worship of new deities, the construction of temples by royalty, and the increasing influence of Brahmanas (priests) in society. The Brahmanas, respected for their knowledge of Sanskrit texts, consolidated their position through the support of new rulers seeking prestige.
Arrival of Islam
New religions also emerged in the subcontinent. The teachings of the holy Quran were introduced to India in the seventh century by merchants and migrants. Muslims believe in one God, Allah, and the Quran as their holy book. Many rulers patronized Islam and the learned scholars (ulama). Like Hinduism, Islam was interpreted in various ways by its followers, including the Shia and Sunni Muslims, who differed on issues of leadership and followed different schools of law and theological traditions.
Thinking About Time and Historical Periods
Historians view time not merely as a progression of hours or years but as a reflection of changes in social, economic, and cultural aspects. To study the past, historians divide it into large segments or periods characterized by shared features.
How Historians View Time
Historians perceive time as encompassing changes in social and economic organization, as well as the persistence and transformation of ideas and beliefs.
Periodisation of History
In the mid-19th century, British historians divided Indian history into three periods: "Hindu," "Muslim," and "British," based on the religion of the rulers. This approach is largely rejected today by historians who prefer to characterize periods based on economic and social factors. The period from 700 to 1750 is often referred to as "medieval," a term contrasted with "modern." While "modernity" implies progress, the medieval period was not static but witnessed significant economic, social, and cultural transformations, including the growth of prosperous economies that attracted European trading companies.